B How do you manage an Historic Environment
Record?
Part
B of the manual provides an introduction to the management policies and systems
which constitute the framework in which the day to day operations of an HER
take place
Contributors: Kenneth Aitchison, Tony Austin, Alison Bennett, Victoria Bryant, Kieran Byrne, Phil
Carlisle, Dominique de Moulins, Kate Fernie, Catherine Hardman, Bob Hook,
William Kilbride, Neil Lang, Edmund Lee, and Martin Newman.
B.1 Managing the HER
Although there are variations in local arrangements, each HER provides an
information management service within a larger organization. Every HER has
information assets, in its databases and references collections, and each
provides services to users. All HERs have resources in their staff, equipment
and the finances that support information services. These all need good
management, particularly as resources are scarce and HER managers are
increasingly being asked to demonstrate the efficiency and effectiveness of
their services in competition with others.
Managing
an HER is like running a small business in which HER managers are asked to
promote the value of their services and prioritise the allocation of scarce
resources to meet competing demands. Time will always be limited and the purpose
of this section of the manual is to provide guidelines on planning and
management issues common to all HERs, which are described below.
Policy and Planning
Policy
and planning documents help HER managers to get the most out of limited
resources and provide a framework for making decisions in a rapidly changing
world. The importance of such documents is recognised by their use as measures
of HER performance in Historic
Environment Records: Benchmarks for Good Practice (Chitty 2002). The policy
documents defined in this document as 1st stage performance
indicators are:-
·
Information services
policy (1.1 - 1.2). This explains why the record is maintained, who it aims to
serve and how users can access the data.
·
Information policy (2.1 -
2.3).
This outlines the scope, geographical coverage and content of the information
available and a disposals policy for transfer of primary archives.
·
Recording Manual (3.1 -
3.4).
This explains how data is captured and how it is recorded to provide quality
assurance and includes guides and an index to supporting reference collections.
·
Security policy (3.5,
3.8). This
deals with strategies for appropriate archiving of digital and non-digital
material as well as the preparation of a risk assessment and disaster plan.
·
Forward Plan (3.6, 3.7). An ongoing assessment of
the quality of data and a prioritised programme of update and enhancement
requirements.
Staff training and continuous
professional development
Retaining
appropriately qualified staff to run the HER is essential for providing high
quality information and advisory services. Management activities in this area
include seeking additional staff resources (for projects or to increase the
core complement) and preparing a training and development plan for existing
staff members. The preparation of a Recording
Manual will facilitate staff training and professional development.
Content
The
information contained in HERs is continually developing. Management activities
in this area include planning programmes of information capture in line with
the HER's Recording Policy, local or
regional research frameworks and
national data standards. HER managers will be monitoring and validating input
to the HER database and, if appropriate, the GIS and the cataloguing and
storage of HER collections. They are also likely to be working with planning
archaeologists to develop proformas for digital data to be included in briefs
and developing licenses for material deposited with the HER. Increasingly they
will be working with systems designed to facilitate information flow between
archaeological organisations (for example OASIS see B.5.4, C.7.3). Managing
data standards and the wordlists or thesauri in use in the HER and contributing
to national standards working parties is another important aspect of this work.
Information technology
The
speed of new developments in information technology (IT) means that in many
places computer hardware and software is on a 3 to 5 year replacement cycle.
HER managers need to work within any corporate IT policies to plan for the
replacement of hardware such as PCs and for the migration of data into new
information systems. HER managers need to be aware of the range of software
their corporate IT department are prepared to support when assessing the
potential of new information systems as part of their Forward Plan. A day-to-day aspect of their work will be backing up
the HER's computer systems and making sure that the Security Policy contains a strategy to restore services in the
event of a range of potential problems.
Access and services
Services
offered by HERs, both internally and to the public, are likely to be kept under
review by local authorities or parent organisations. Because of this an
important aspect of the work of an HER manager is putting procedures in place
to log the number and type of enquiries to the HER, monitor user satisfaction
and survey user needs as outlined in the Information
services policy. Government initiatives have highlighted the need to
increase access to HERs (refs; see Section F). HER managers should be involved
in planning to improve and develop the information services offered. HER managers should also be involved
in preparing bids for funding to the Heritage Lottery Fund or other funding
sources to improve access and services.
Useful
web sites
OASIS http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/project/oasis/
ALGAO/EH
Historic
Environment Records: Benchmarks for Good Practice http://www.jiscmail.ac.uk/files/HERFORUM/
B.2 Forward planning for HERs
All
HERs change continuously, as the needs of last year are often not those of
today, and tomorrow will be different again. There may be changes in the local
management structure, opportunities for partnerships, projects or funding or
developments in information technology and standards. Discoveries about the
local historic environment will also bring new work programmes.
Preparing
a forward plan helps HERs, large or small, to take stock, to understand the
needs of their service and visualise plans for the future. It is an opportunity
to discuss plans with management and gain approval from local councillors or
governing bodies. This is particularly important now that there is increasing
pressure from government for HERs to change and develop their research,
education and outreach functions. The forward plan may need to integrate with
wider serviced and strategic plans within the local authority, especially if it
is to be distributed to councillors or senior management.
Forward
plans help HERs to achieve value for money in improving the management of
information resources and the quality of services offered. They also help to
monitor progress and demonstrate achievement.
Forward
plans should take into account national performance targets and standards.
Most
HERs are based in local authorities and are assessed by the Audit Commission in
the same way as other local authority services. Best Value Performance
Indicators (BVPI) were first introduced in 2000/01. Since then the framework,
within which local government performance is assessed and measured, has
developed. Because of this, BVPIs are now undergoing a fundamental review and
current standards are likely to change.
In
addition to monitoring Best Value the Audit Commission require local
authorities to undertake Regular Performance Assessments (RPA) as part of an
ongoing Continuous Performance Assessment (CPA). These recognise that the focus
and priorities in service delivery are not the same everywhere and state that
as well as BVPIs, professional benchmarks (Chitty 2002) and/or other
frameworks, for example the Regional Research Frameworks where appropriate,
should be used.
Useful websites
Best
Value: http://www.communities.gov.uk/index.asp?id=1137624
Continuous
Performance Assessment (CPA):
http://www.audit-commission.gov.uk/cpa/
Wales
In Wales the
four HERs are owned and managed by the Welsh Archaeological Trusts (WATs). The
WATs are independent charitable trusts, part funded by the Welsh Assembly Government
to provide regional archaeological services. Some additional financial support
is provided by a number of the local authorities. The Royal Commission on the
Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales (RCAHMW) provides task specific grant
aid for maintaining and enhancing the records, while funding to support public
enquiries is provided by Cadw. Cadw and RCAHMW monitor the provision of
archaeological services on behalf of the Welsh Assembly Government. The HER
Benchmarks (Chitty 2002) are being adopted for use in Wales.
Scotland
In Scotland local authorities are subject to best
value review but no specific best value performance indicators have been
developed for application to HERs.
B.2.2 How
can forward plans help?
Forward
plans help HERs to set out realistic programmes that reflect local priorities
and also establish their own performance and efficiency targets. They also
provide:
·
A sense of purpose: forward planning
encourages management and staff to establish a shared statement of purpose that
can be used to present the HER and its services to the outside world. Forward
plans help others to understand the HER's priorities and goals.
·
A sense of direction: setting objectives that
address needs identified by the HER helps to give a sense of direction. Work
and resources can be planned and everyone can see how individual tasks help to
achieve longer-term goals.
·
A sense of achievement: reviewing the HERs
achievements each year against its own objectives is one of the benefits of
forward planning. Just as performance can be measured, so achievements can be
reported.
·
Managing change: introducing new
procedures, technology or projects all involve commitment of staff time and
resources. HERs can not afford to make mistakes or run out of resources or
enthusiasm.
Preparing
an action plan enables managers to assess the timescale, costs, methods,
equipment, materials and staff required to introduce change successfully. Such
plans assist when bidding for resources from local authorities, national
agencies and other funding agencies. They also allow you to respond quickly and
confidently when funds are made available at short notice (for example at the
end of the financial year).
B.2.3 What
should be included in a forward plan?
A
forward plan is the end product of a process that should:
·
Agree a mission statement that clearly states the HER's aims.
·
Develop a future strategy for the HER based on these aims.
·
Be aware of regional or national research frameworks and reference them
where appropriate.
·
Produce an objective assessment of the HER's strengths, weaknesses, any
current shortcomings and any challenges ahead.
·
Identify areas which need improved management or increased resources.
·
Set work objectives for programme areas which help the HER to achieve
its strategic aims over the period of the plan.
·
Identify performance indicators against which achievements can be
measured. Such indicators are normally qualitative, quantitative or time
related.
·
Identify any new developments or changes that require new resources or
training.
·
Set out realistic timetables and costings for programmes of work
identifying methods, equipment, materials and staff resources required.
The
completed forward plan should be carefully thought out and appropriate to the
HER's needs. It should be approved and actively supported by both the HER's
parent authority and staff working in or with the service.
B.2.4 The forward-planning process
The
process of preparing a forward plan can be divided into stages:
Taking stock
Take
time to gain a thorough understanding of the HER's current strength or
weaknesses. The Historic Environment
Records: Benchmarks for Good Practice (Chitty 2002) suggests standards
which all HER's should be working towards. How does your service compare
against these benchmarks and other HERs? What factors have influenced services
in the past? Are there any current requirements and needs?
List
all activities or projects that are currently identified. Ask yourself why they
are included in your programme and how important they are to present needs.
Panel 2 gives a self assessment checklist of standards for HER services based
on the recommendations included in David Baker’s ‘SMR Assessment Report’ (Baker
1999a).
The
EH sponsored HER Audits provide a method to take stock of an HER’s resources
(see later in this section).
Consult widely
For
the plan to work it must have the support of both staff and management. Consult
colleagues and give interested parties an opportunity to contribute,
particularly where goals are shared with other departments, for example,
extending public access to the HER may involve libraries or museums. Discuss
plans with other HERs and take advantage of their experiences. Regional
Research Frameworks, where they exist, provide a useful insight into the aspirations
of the heritage community in the area and should be considered. Consult the
appropriate national agencies, especially if you aim to include a nationally
funded project in your programme.
Drafting the plan
On
the basis of managers knowledge of the HER, the results of the self-assessment
process and documents such as the Benchmarks
for Good Practice (Chitty 2002) write down your vision for the future. You
should be realistic and separate out achievable elements that most effectively
deliver the HER's mission.
Break
down your vision into programme areas and projects and identify resources
required to deliver them.
Prioritise
Tasks
must be prioritised. Generally those
tasks which help to meet HER benchmarks or support current services should be
tackled first, but be aware that factors such as changes in funding may result
in a need to change priorities at short notice. Different funding sources can
be targeted for specific aspects or types of work. Be flexible.
Choose the best approach
Do
not assume that things always have to be done in the same way. New techniques
may become available or requirements might change. This manual offers
guidelines for HER working practices and may suggest some ideas that may be new
to your HER. Each HER needs to work out its own detailed procedures to complete
its work programmes.
Be realistic
Set
goals and objectives that the HER can aim to achieve over a 3 to 5 year period.
It is no good trying to create fully detailed monument records from a major
compilation backlog if, for example the HER is not MIDAS compliant (Lee 1998)
and staff resources are not in place.
The
plan must include an assessment of the resources required and a strategy to put
these in place. If the resources are unattainable, the plan must be revised.
Think laterally about seeking funding, for instance, working with local groups
to apply for Local Heritage Initiative and other lottery funded grants.
Set short-term goals
It
is a good idea to set short-term goals and identify milestones against which
achievements can be measured. This helps to maintain staff morale and provides
useful information for promoting the HER within your service.
Consider any risks
Assess
any risks involved in implementing your forward plan, particularly when making
changes to current work practices or introducing new technology. Identifying
risks means that you can plan additional measures to limit the likelihood of
their occurrence. It is less risky to try to move forward than to stand still.
HER
Audits
To assist in forward
planning and benchmark compliance the NMR of English Heritage runs a programme
of HER Audits. Audits are wide ranging and assess all parts of the HER
including: content, compliance with standards, IT (hardware and software)
resources (financial and staffing), usage (internal and external) and backlogs.
The audit process is as follows:
1.
HER contacts the NMR expressing interest in conducting an Audit.
2.
The NMR sends out the latest version of the Audit Specification.
3.
The HER writes to the NMR requesting a grant to cover 50 per cent of the
cost up to £1,500 and submits a brief project plan consisting of a timetable
for data gathering and report writing with resources allocated.
4.
The NMR pays a grant to the HER.
5.
The HER carries out the audit, discussing progress with the NMR at
agreed monitoring points and writes a report which it submits to the NMR.
6.
The NMR comments on the report.
7.
An optional post-audit meeting to discuss the recommendations and how
they can be implemented takes place between the HER and the NMR.
8.
Progress against the recommendations are assessed.
9.
The Audit is reassessed after 5 years.
As well as assisting an
HER in assessing itself against the benchmarks carrying out an audit itself
satisfies benchmark 3.6.
There
is no equivalent process in Scotland or Wales although Scotland’s Historic
Environment Audit is currently in progress. This will identify issues
relevant to the health of the historic environment and the impact of resources
used to manage and protect it. It is intended that the resulting document
will be used to inform policy for Local Authorities as well as Historic
Scotland, see http://www.heritageaudit.org.uk/
for details.
The
forward plan should be presented to local councillors or the HER's governing
body for approval. Members may already be aware that the document is being
prepared and the plan may be presented as a final draft or as a finished
document.
Presenting
the plan is a way of gaining support for the HER and for the programmes of work
that you have proposed.
B.2.6
Monitoring progress and reviewing the plan
Your
forward plan will establish objectives and performance indicators for the HER.
Each year, the HER's performance will be monitored and achievements measured
against the objectives set the previous year. Report your achievements to
management and to either local councillors or the HER's governing body.
Progress
against your forward plan should be kept under regular review. This is likely
to happen at the end of each quarter. Reviewing the plan and progress against
planned objectives highlights issues, unexpected changes in circumstances or
new opportunities to be identified. The plan needs to be modified, but making
changes does not invalidate the process; in fact having a forward plan should
help reasoned decisions to be made and the unexpected managed.
Forward
plans normally cover a 3 to 5 year period and are more detailed for the first
year than for subsequent years. Such plans should be formally reviewed every
year; this is likely to precede the annual budget round.
Useful
websites
England Regional Research frameworks
Eastern of England http://www.eaareports.demon.co.uk/research_framework.htm
East Midlands http://www.le.ac.uk/archaeology/research/projects/eastmidsfw/index.html
North East: http://www.durham.gov.uk/durhamcc/usp.nsf/pws/Archaeology+2001+-+Archaeology+Regional+Research+Framework
West Midlands: http://www.arch-ant.bham.ac.uk/research/fieldwork_research_themes/projects/wmrrfa/index.htm
Wales:
http://www.cpat.org.uk/research/index.htm
B.3 Staff training and
continuing professional development
Continuing professional development (CPD) has been
defined (after the Engineering Council) as:
‘The
systematic maintenance and improvement of knowledge, skills and competence
throughout a professional’s working life and the process by which a
professional person maintains the quality and relevance of the professional
services they provide during their working life.’
Training is something that contributes to CPD; it
refers to the design, provision or organization of events which provide a
structured learning experience which can form a part of an individual’s CPD
programme.
As
a principle, CPD refers to the need of all historic environment professionals
to keep up to date and to extend our knowledge and expertise. This is essential
to the development of the academic disciplines and practical methodologies of
historic environment professional practice, to enhancing society’s
understanding of its past and to maintaining our standards in the use and care
of a vulnerable, valuable resource.
As
a process, CPD describes a structure through which each of us can identify the
underpinning knowledge and skills necessary to maintain or develop our
expertise and further our careers, within existing roles or in seeking or
taking on new responsibilities. The structure enables us to select the ways by
which we acquire that knowledge and those skills, and to commit to this
learning. Further, it provides us with a means of articulating to others our
learning needs in order to seek, and obtain, the support we may need in our
commitment.
It
is relevant to all practitioners, in all sectors of the historic environment
professional community, no matter what their seniority or specialization may
be.
The utility and success
of CPD is largely dependent upon the depth of our individual commitment to
learning and the degree of responsibility to ourselves and the profession that
we are each willing to accept.
B.3.1 The principles
behind continuing professional development
Continuing professional
development (CPD) and life-long learning are concepts central to modern
professional practice.
The principles of CPD are
supported by government, employers and professional bodies and as a result
increasing attention is being given to staff development, with the aim of
creating a climate of continuous improvement in service delivery. An organization’s performance is improved by
linking training and development to planned, well-communicated service
objectives. Everyone is encouraged and
developed to make the best possible contribution to achieving the organization’s
goals.
The objectives of individual
members of staff should be integrated into a training strategy for the service
as a whole. A starting point for this
strategy would be an assessment of the skills and knowledge required for the
service to fulfill its objectives, and also those needed by specific members of
staff. This assessment can then be used
to help 'benchmark' the current level of expertise and to prepare a strategy
for developing staff, and also consider methods of obtaining training through
internal or external courses and workshops.
A methodology, with
supporting case study, for undertaking a skills audit within a historic
environment organization has been published by the Cultural Heritage National
Training Organisation (now part of Creative and Cultural Skills) at
http://www.chnto.co.uk/development/archaeologyCaseStudies/archaeologyFoundationsCS/whowhat.php
B.3.2 Undertaking
continuing professional development
CPD is structured upon the use of
two career development tools, the Personal
Development Plan and the CPD Log.
The Personal Development Plan (PDP) is a key part of quality assurance
in the training process. This should document targeted career objectives which
are ‘SMART’ - specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and time bound, and
identify the training required to support this career development. This
document belongs to the individual, but its preparation should be discussed and
ideally agreed with the individual’s line manager to ensure that the
individual’s professional development meshes with the skills needs of the
organization. The actual document may be a short or long term plan, depending
on what is most useful.
The personal development plan is
supported by a second document, the Continuing
Professional Development (CPD) Log. It is important to track closely the
achievement of learning goals, in order to record and reflect on learning. The
CPD Log is an on-going record of achieved training or career objectives. It
provides an ordered documentary record of steps undertaken to achieve personal
development goals, the time investment, the means, the achieved progress, and
any follow up.
These two documents, the PDP and CPD
log are directly linked. Working together they produce a dynamic process: CPD
achievements refer back to the aims in the PDP, the PDP evolves as existing
objectives are accomplished and new ones added. The format is not rigid,
retrospective changes may be applied to the PDP in the light of unexpected
learning opportunities. These documents allow and promote a pro-active approach
to personal development on the part of the practitioner. They encourage and
enable the formalization and articulation of learning goals, objectives and progress
towards them. They offer a portable record of personal investment in
development.
The
PDP and the CPD log belong to the individual practitioner, their mentor or
manager may use them to identify and evaluate training needs, but ownership
stays with the individual. This sense
of ownership is important, as it helps to motivate the individual in setting
personal goals which contribute to the overall development of the
organization’s skills base.
A
number of bodies are engaged in the active promotion of training across the
professions and specialisms working with the historic environment.
The
Archaeology Training Forum
Since 1998, the
Archaeology Training Forum (ATF) and its member organisations have taken
forward a co-ordinated programme to develop training and a framework for
professional qualification in archaeology.
The ATF is a delegate body which represents all those organisations
which have an interest in the issues of training and career development in
archaeology. It was constituted in 1998
to review the present provision of training in archaeology and to co-ordinate
future strategies to meet the profession's training needs. The ATF exists to:
·
keep current training provision by member bodies and others under review
·
seek to ensure that funding for training from whatever source is
distributed according to need within a framework of priorities
·
work towards the alignment of existing and proposed training sessions
and units, sponsored or run by bodies represented, into a series of related
programmes accessible to all members of the profession and to interested
amateurs
·
work towards agreement on the validation of training units and their
integration within a widely accepted professional career structure.
The ATF is concerned to
promote solutions to current training issues in the profession and to engender
action to ensure that future needs are met.
To do so it works with academic and professional partners to promote a
range of training to meet the needs of the profession and to co-ordinate
strategies to fill any perceived
gaps.
The bodies presently
making up the ATF are:
·
The Association of Local Government Archaeological Officers
·
The Council for British Archaeology
·
English Heritage
·
The Institute of Field Archaeologists
·
The Society of Museum Archaeologists
·
The Standing Committee of Archaeological Unit Managers
·
The Subject Committee for Archaeology
·
Prospect
·
Creative and Cultural Skills
·
Higher Education Academy Subject Centre for Archaeology
·
The Institute of Historic Building Conservation
One
of the ATF’s earliest pieces of work was the commissioning of the development
of a suite of National Occupational Standards in Archaeological Practice (see
below). These benchmarks of vocational
competence are now being used as the underpinning architecture for the ATF’s
profession-wide initiatives. The ATF’s
forward plan for the period to 2006 sets out a route map of training priorities
for the profession, which includes further promoting personal investment in
training and best practice through wider use of PDPs and CPD logs and producing
guidance for employers in archaeology on effective strategies for training in
business.
National
Occupational Standards (NOS)
National Occupational Standards (NOS)
form the basis of the government's strategy for vocational qualifications and
training. These are a simple, yet powerful and comprehensive tool which can
support the efficient achievement of individual and organisational goals.
Put simply, they describe what
competent people in a particular occupation should be able to achieve. They
provide a framework for progression beyond degree level, for vocational
training and for professional development and career planning.
A suite of National
Occupational Standards in Archaeological Practice has been developed in
conjunction with ATF members and after extensive consultation with the sector.
Reference to these means that creating personal development plans, establishing
training programmes and bringing clarity and focus to performance appraisal can
be achieved more efficiently.
B.3.4 The Institute of
Field Archaeologists (IFA)
The Institute of Field Archaeologists
is the professional organisation for all archaeologists and others involved in
protecting and understanding the historic environment. It acts in support of
its members, works to improve pay and conditions, represents the interests of
archaeology and archaeologists to government, policy makers and industry, keeps
members up to date on developments in archaeological practice, sets standards
and issues guidelines, promotes and organises training, improves individual
career prospects, provides a wide range of membership services, and through its
Registered Archaeological Organisation (RAO) scheme improves employment
practices and raises standards of work.
There are presently over 2,300
members of the IFA. Membership is open to practising archaeologists in all
fields, whether professional or amateur. Archaeologists are admitted to
corporate membership after rigorous peer review of their experience and
qualifications. They may identify themselves as corporate members by using the
designation PIFA, AIFA and MIFA depending on membership grade. There are
non-corporate membership grades of Student and Affiliate. All members agree to
abide by the Institute’s Code of Conduct,
for all archaeologists have a duty to adhere to the highest professional and
ethical standards.
The IFA plays an active
role in supporting and developing the skills base of individual members, of IFA
Registered Archaeological Organisations and the profession as a whole.
Throughout
the IFA Code of conduct there runs a
requirement for practitioners to maintain and be aware of their levels of
knowledge and skill. Without such maintenance and awareness, archaeologists
cannot hope to uphold the principles and adhere to the rules laid down in the
Code. The IFA sees Continuing
Professional Development (CPD) as a principal means of sustaining and developing
archaeologists, the profession of archaeology and standards, and so IFA
is committed to CPD as a means of securing good practice and high standards
amongst its members. Both new
applicants for membership and existing members are expected to undertake at
least 50 hours CPD in any two-year period. The CPD pages of the IFA web site
can be found at: http://www.archaeologists.net/modules/icontent/index.php?page=20 )
B.3.5 Training in building conservation
Since April 2004
it has been a condition of English Heritage and Historic Scotland grant funded
building repair projects that the lead professionals should be accredited in
conservation. This requirement follows concerns at Historic Scotland in
relation to the quality of grant-aided works, which led first to a commitment
in the 1998 Historic Buildings Council for Scotland’s Annual Report that
“within 3 to 5 years” lead professionals should be accredited. English Heritage
then gave a parallel commitment to accreditation at the IHBC 2001 Annual School
in London.
A number of the
professional bodies have administered accreditation systems for some time.
These schemes allow pre-qualified and appropriately experienced professionals
to seek accreditation as individuals, normally by way of submission of detailed
evidence of experience. (Eydman and Preston 2004).
B.3.6 The Institute of
Historic Building Conservation (IHBC)
The Institute of Historic Building
Conservation (IHBC) is the professional institute which represents conservation professionals in the
public and private sectors in the United Kingdom and Ireland. IHBC exists to
establish the highest standards of conservation practice to support the
effective protection and enhancement of the historic environment.
The
Institute recognises the value to be gained by members, clients, our heritage
and the public at large in having a positive approach to the continuing
training and development of its members.
IHBC has developed a CPD scheme for members that requires a recorded
form of members’ learning to ensure that it is effective, reflective of
considered needs and that it gets recognition.
The form of the record is not as important as the content and that it
links back to the individual member’s Personal Development Assessment and the
IHBC’s Areas of Professional Competence
(Philosophy; Legislation/Policy; Technology; History; Finance/Economics;
Research/Recording/Analysis; Design/Presentation; Practice). The IHBC requires members to log 50 hours of
CPD over a rolling two year period.
The
IHBC will, at short notice, call in the CPD Records of a percentage of members
each year for assessment. These members will be selected at random but the
system will be attenuated to ensure, over time, that all members will, at some
point, be called in. Any member who fails to submit their CPD Records or
submits unacceptable and/or unverified CPD records will be subject to
disciplinary action by the Institute including expulsion. Any member whose CPD
Records need further explanation will be required to respond in writing to
questions from the Institute and/or attend an interview. Should the outcome of
this process be unsatisfactory the Institute will instigate appropriate
disciplinary action including expulsion.
(Preston and Brown 2005)
B.3.7 Other relevant
organisations
These include Creative and Cultural Skills. This body is the Sector Skills Council for
archaeology, the historic environment and all other areas of the UK workforce
in the cultural and creative sector. It
is recognised by the UK Government as the strategic training organization for
the museums, galleries and heritage sector in the UK, providing advice about
training and professional development.
The Learning and Skills Council (LSC) is responsible for funding and
planning education and training for over 16-year-olds in England. It provides
countrywide information on training plans and workplace training. The LSC functions through a network of local
offices, and can sometimes offer financial support for learners and employers.
B.3.8 Training and CPD in
HERs
It is recognised that,
alongside the general lack of development within the historic environment
professions overall, training provision for HER staff is also considered to be
weak.
Given the wide range of
roles and functions that HER staff have to fulfill, their skills and
development needs are broad. As the
requirements placed on these individuals are increasingly demanding, the need for
the maintenance of their CPD and for opportunities for learning are
increasingly being recognised.
Forms of CPD
CPD can be accessed
through both formal and informal learning, which can take place on or off the
job.
·
On-the-job, or in-house, formal training would involve learning in a
traditional, ‘classroom’ setting, provided by in-house trainers or imported
experts.
·
Off-the-job formal training would involve the individual professional
attending a training course that is being run away from their usual place of
work.
·
Informal learning, taking place on–the-job might take the form of being
coached by a more experienced colleague.
·
Off-the-job informal learning can take place through means such as
conference attendance or through structured, focused reading.
Whatever form the CPD
experience takes, the important thing is what is learned, not how or where it
is learned. Learning should be valued
in terms of the outcomes of what is delivered (the learning), not the input (that
is the time spent on the learning experience).
If the outcomes of a learning experience match a learning objective that
an individual has placed in their Personal Development Plan, then that learning
has contributed and counts towards their CPD and should be recorded in the CPD
log.
Training providers
English Heritage
facilitates an annual programme of short courses in partnership with higher
education institutions, including Oxford University Department of Continuing
Education, for historic environment practitioners and postgraduate students.
The Courses are designed by English Heritage in association with the
Archaeology Training Forum (ATF), the Institute of Historic Building
Conservation (IHBC) and the Institute of Field Archaeologists (IFA).
Training is also offered
by a wide range of bodies and organisations, including:
·
university continuing education departments
·
university postgraduate courses in Cultural Resource Management and
other relevant subjects
·
Historic Environment Local Management (HELM) provides
information and training to help local authority decision making in the
historic environment.
·
English Heritage's Data Standards Unit, which has developed training in
data standards, documentation and recording practices for curators of monument
inventories.
·
the Archaeology Data Service, which offers seminars on digital data
management.
·
the Museums Association, which represents
the people and institutions constituting Britain's museums and galleries,
offers several professional development schemes.
·
exeGesIS Spatial Data Management (SDM) Ltd offer training in exeGesIS
SDM Ltd's HER data management software.
·
local authorities may provide in-house training in ICT applications
including the use of GIS.
Useful websites
The Archaeology Training
Forum: http://www.britarch.ac.uk/training/atf.html
Professional Training in
the Historic Environment: http://www.helm.org.uk/server/show/ConWebDoc.4494
National Occupational Standards
in Archaeological Practice:
http://www.torc.org.uk/nos/index/asp
IFA CPD
page http://www.archaeologists.net/modules/icontent/index.php?page=20
Three
case studies using NOS are available via IFA website http://www.archaeologists.net/modules/icontent/index.php?page=41
IHBC CPD page http://www.ihbc.org.uk/1main_pages/education.html
Creative and Cultural
Skills: http://www.ccskills.org.uk/
Learning and Skills
Council: http://www.lsc.gov.uk
TUC Learning Services: http://www.unionlearn.org.uk/
Union Learning Fund: http://www.unionlearningfund.org.uk/
IFA training and career
development: http://www.archaeologists.net/modules/icontent/index.php?page=41
Training in Professional
Archaeology: http://www.britarch.ac.uk/training/survey.html
Archaeology Labour Market
Intelligence: http://www.archaeologists.net/modules/icontent/inPages/docs/prof/LMI_Report1.pdf
CBA Briefing: training
courses, etc: http://www.britarch.ac.uk/briefing/briefing.html
Investors in People: http://www.investorsinpeople.co.uk/IIP/Web/default.htm
exeGesIS
SDM Ltd: http://www.esdm.co.uk/training.asp
HELM: http://www.helm.org.uk/
Data Standards Unit: http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/server/show/nav.8331
Archaeology Data Service:
http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/
B.4 Defining the HER
| B.4.1 Recording policy | B.4.2 Updating the recording policy | B.4.3 Disposals | B.4.4 Inclusion of archaeological science data in HERs |
In his assessment report,
David Baker recommended that HERs should be all-inclusive of subject and period
for archaeology and preferably for all aspects of the historic environment for
a defined geographic area (Baker 1999a).
This is endorsed in Benchmarks for Good Practice which for the 1st
stage states that “the record should be inclusive of subject and period for all
archaeology terrestrial and maritime” and should “provide comprehensive
coverage for statutory and non-statutory designated historic places”. It also
states that a “written policy setting out the scope, geographical coverage and
content” is required (Chitty, 2002, p.6 benchmarks 2.1 and 2.2). Looking beyond
this broad-brush statement, HER managers are recommended to set out the scope
and content of their record in their recording guidelines and to have a collecting
and disposal policy for archive material.
The publication of the Hedgerow
Regulations (DoE 1997) underlined the need for a clear statement of what
data and other information comprises a local HER.
B.4.1 Recording policy (see also D.2)
HERs are recommended to
prepare a recording policy that covers the following areas:
Geographic area
HERs normally cover the
geographic area administered by a particular local authority. In some areas, a number of HERs may operate,
each offering services to different tiers of local government or to National
Park authorities. The recording policy
for each HER should state the geographic area covered and any arrangements for
exchanging or sharing data with neighbouring records. While local authorities do not currently have responsibility below the
low water mark, those authorities that have a coastline should include the
maritime cultural heritage in their record. A seamless
approach is advocated in compiling a
maritime component of a HER record out
to the territorial limit,
currently the 12 nautical miles and beyond if dealing with submerged
landscapes.
Subject Coverage
The period and scope of
coverage varies from one HER to another.
Some collect information about archaeological sites up to 1700 while
others provide comprehensive coverage for all aspects of the archaeological and
built environment. To meet benchmark 2.1 of Benchmarks for Good Practice
(Chitty, 2002) the latter is required.
A recording policy should set out the period and topic themes that are
covered by the record and may make reference to research framework documents
for the area or region. This policy
will provide the framework for planning enhancements to the HER's information
content and needs to be kept under review as new subject areas are considered
for inclusion. For example, the scope
of the recording policy may need to be extended if HER managers decide to begin
recording Cold War defensive sites (as some already do). Monument coverage in the submerged zone should
reflect terrestrial coverage but ideally should be all encompassing, including
wrecks, crashed aircraft, submerged landscapes and finds/reports outside the.
Recording policies may
also identify other organisations (or departments) which are maintaining
information about aspects of the historic environment that complements the
information recorded by the HER, and any arrangements that are in place for
sharing or exchanging data.
Sourcing of Information (see also D.3)
HERs hold information
collected from a range of organisations including contracting field units,
local societies, museums and national bodies.
The recording policy might contain a list of the principal organisations
from whom the HER collects information and include guidelines for deposit of
material/information with an HER, for example a deposit licence.
Information Systems
HERs maintain databases
and GIS to hold information relating to their area of interest. Where a GIS system is used it should be extended to
the limits of the maritime record. The recording
policy might contain a list of the databases and information systems which the
HER maintains and the data standards with which these comply. The policy might also make reference to
digital information resources which the HER accesses on the corporate intranet
(for example spatial layers curated by other departments) or resources mounted
on the intranet.
B.4.2 Updating the
recording policy
It is important to keep
the HER’s recording policy under regular review. From time to time new categories of information or source
materials will be offered to the HER. A local society or other organization may
propose to undertake some research into a subject area which lies outside the
HER's current sphere of interest. In
this event, the HER manager will need to decide whether to extend the recording
policy to include the material or to refer the researcher to a more appropriate
record. For example, many HERs collect
information about sites dating up until the end of World War Il. If a local society were to propose a survey
of 20th-century street furniture, the HER manager would need to decide whether
to extend the collecting policy or not. The HER may be offered collections that
require special storage conditions and it is important to decide whether it is
possible to provide suitable arrangements. If the HER can offer appropriate
storage the collecting policy will need to be revised. If the HER cannot then
the collection should be transferred to an appropriate museum, archive or
digital archive.
Some HERs may hold
information that do not meet the criteria set out in their recording
policy. Similarly HERs are not normally
equipped to hold original paper, photographic, digital archives or
archaeological finds. HER managers are recommended to identify appropriate
repositories for inappropriate information and original materials in a
collection and disposals section within the recording policy. This should set
out the steps that the HER will take to find an appropriate alternative
repository for this material, for example documents will normally be deposited
at the local records office and finds, with any associated archive material, at
local museums. Suitable and accessible
repositories should be identified for a maritime archive. HERs generally hold
reference collections of secondary sources but often include primary materials
such as site-visit forms, letters, reports and photographic materials.
Signposts should be maintained to external archives holding data pertaining to
monuments and events via the sources records in the HER. In cases where local government boundaries
have changed, HERs may need to consider their policy on the transfer of
information and archives relating to adjacent geographical areas or new local
authorities within their area.
Figure 4: Information management cycle
B.4.4 Inclusion of archaeological science data in HERs
Introduction
Until
recently archaeological science data have been entered sporadically and patchily
on many HERs. Now that, hopefully, archaeological science has an increasingly
routine role in archaeological interventions, it is important to try to record
the data retrieved in as systematic and standardised a manner as possible to be
used in development controls as well as in research.
Archaeological science covers scientific dating
(including radiocarbon, dendrochronology, archaeomagnetic, OSL), conservation
of objects, techniques such as residues, isotopes and DNA analyses and all
aspects of environmental archaeology (soils, plants, animals). Geophysics is
not considered here as it is thought (perhaps wrongly) that it is already
satisfactorily recorded in the HERs.
A working group was formed in 2003 to investigate how
to enter the archaeological science data and what to enter. At the end of three
working sessions a number of recommendations have been identified but other
topics are still under discussion. An e-conference on the subject was held in
January 2005 and is summarised at the end of this section.
Potential
Recommendations
The potential recommendations relate to four main
areas: where on the HER database should the data be entered, the level of
details of the data, the mechanism for ensuring that the information reaches
the HER officer and the implementation of these recommendations.
1. Where data should be recorded:
It was agreed that the data should be entered in the event area or its
equivalent under a general field called object type (artefact/ecofact). The
terms (for example pot, mammal remains) in this field are crucial of course and
have been the subject of most of the working group’s discussions. They have
been based as far as possible on existing lists of terms (see below).
2. The level of details: a number
of fields have been identified which are suitable for all the object types. These are
Material,
State
(modification of state) for example preservation,
Assemblage
size,
Period
Investigative
technique
Recovery
method
Storage
location
Reference
Notes
Panel 3 shows examples of the use of these proposed fields to record archaeological science data in an HER. These fields are not necessarily going to be together but the table offers a good summary of what is intended.
|
Panel
3: Examples of the use of fields to record archaeological science data |
|||||||||
|
Object
type (Artefact/ Ecofact) |
Material |
State (Modification state) (e.g.preservation) |
Assemblage
size |
Period |
Investigative
techniques |
Recovery
method |
Storage
location |
References |
Notes |
|
(Soils & sediments + LUT:) Colluvium Alluvium Buried soil Estuarine Aeolian
etc... |
Tephra Peat Ash Sand Gravel |
|
|
|
Particle
size Ph Soil
phosphorus Loss
on ignition Magnetic
susceptibility Micromorphology |
(Specialist
samples +LUT) Blocks Bulk Kubenya
tins |
|
Link
to the full report |
Exceptional
occurrences or other detail |
|
(Vertebrates
+ LUT:) Human
remains Large
mammals Small
mammals Bird Fish Amphibian Reptiles |
Bone Antler Teeth Ivory Skin Hair Feathers Egg
shells |
Charred Mineralised |
1-3 |
|
Xradiography Isotope
Ancient
biomolecules |
Hand
Bulk
Sieving |
Specialist’s
shelf Museum Archaeological
unit |
|
|
|
(Invertebrates
+ LUT:) Insects Mites Ostracods Molluscs
land Molluscs
freshwater Molluscs
marine |
Shell Body
parts |
Waterlogged Charred Mineralised |
|
|
|
Monoliths Bulk Spot Column auger |
|
|
|
|
(Plants
+ LUT:) Plant
macro remains Moss Wood Pollen Phytoliths Spores |
Grains Chaff Seeds Roots Leaves Buds |
Waterlogged Charred Mineralised Worked |
|
|
|
Bulk Monoliths Hand Flotation Dry
sieving |
|
|
|
|
(Vessels + LUT) Amphorae Pot Dish |
Pottery Glass Copper
alloy Iron |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
(Clothing
+LUT) Pins Belt Pouch |
Textile Leather Copper
alloy Iron |
Waterlogged Charred Mineralised |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
(Construction
objects +LUT) Tessarae Bricks Tiles |
Clay |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
(Writing
objects + LUT) Stylus Tablet |
Wood Copper
alloy Iron |
Waterlogged Charred Mineralised |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
3. Mechanism
for ensuring that the information reaches the HER officer:
Three steps have been identified for the information to get from the field to
the HER:
1. the
curator’s brief or specifications (or the standards document referred to for
specifications) will include an additional sentence requiring that specialists
fill the fields identified above.
2. the
contractor commissions specialists as usual including this requirement which
becomes part of the specialist’s report. Then the contractor includes the
specialist’s report in the site report and send this to the HER as usual.
3. the
HER officer is able to enter the data fairly swiftly.
4. Implementation: The
recommendations above including the thesauri and lists of terms to be used are
included here in a preliminary form and are the subject of an annex to MIDAS (Lee 1998) and will be included in the next edition MIDAS Heritage: The UK Historic Environment
Information Standard (English Heritage forthcoming). They
will also be advertised at a future HER forum and other meetings.
Topics
still under discussion
Agreements on the four subjects above were arrived at
relatively swiftly but the main preoccupations of the working group have since
centred round the terminology of certain aspects, especially the environmental
terms. Following the principle that no duplication of effort should be made, it
was strongly suggested that instead of building a list of terms ourselves, the
Environmental Archaeology Bibliography (EAB) terminology should be used.
However, the list of terms and symbols used by that bibliography was too cumbersome
for our purpose and above all, it was pointed out that, terms of different
kinds were used together and that it was important, for instance, to keep the
material in a separate field from the object. This principle is already
reflected in the table above but discussion on the environmental terms is till
on going. Members of the workgroup, Gill Campbell and Edmund Lee, in
consultation with various subject specialists have worked out a scheme for
these terms (see links on the FISH files below).
Investigative techniques, especially in relation to
conservation matters is another area still under discussion and becoming more
so as a result of the e-conference (see below).
Other
topics
Other topics have also been discussed such as the
thorny question of the backlog which some members of the working group, keen on
offering the best standards, did not think was immediately relevant. However,
the backlog is of great importance to the individual HERs and an example from
Worcestershire of a fairly low cost way of dealing with it was welcome (see
details in the links below). The addition of fields and/or modules on
individual HERs has been considered but was deemed to be a topic that can be
dealt with once the basic premises have been established.
e-conference summary
An e-conference to act as consultation with the
interested parties took place on the FISH website in January 2005, and covered
the following topics:
Findings
from the three workshops
The role
of the curator
Example
from Worcestershire
Example
from Surrey
Thesaurus
for environmental terminology
Thesaurus
for conservation
Presentation
of an annex to MIDAS and
incorporation in MIDAS Heritage
The discussion can be seen in the archives of the
site on Jiscmail: go to jiscmail@jiscmail.ac.uk
and write: get fish.catalog in the message part to get the archives. The supporting papers are in the file store
for the site at: http://www.jiscmail.ac.uk/files/FISH/.
Most of the discussion and comment was supportive of
the proposals. Conservation issues attracted a significant level of comment and
it is now clear that no single existing list of terms will be suitable to
accommodate the investigative conservation requirements as well as the names of
the objects. It has been suggested that merging the British Museum and the MDA
thesauri would be desirable.
The e-conference ended with a proposal by Edmund Lee
for an annex in current version of MIDAS which will be followed by the inclusion of
recommendations for the archaeological science data in MIDAS Heritage.
Direct
link to the relevant files in the FISH file store:
Example from Worcestershire, Victoria Bryant and Liz Pearson
http://www.jiscmail.ac.uk/files/FISH/ArchSciVBMain_text1.rtf
http://www.jiscmail.ac.uk/files/FISH/ArchSciVBDocument_1.rtf
http://www.jiscmail.ac.uk/files/FISH/ArchSciVB_Document_2.doc
Example for Surrey, Lucy Farr
http://www.jiscmail.ac.uk/files/FISH/ArchSci_LF_Surrey_EAR1.doc
http://www.jiscmail.ac.uk/files/FISH/ArchSci_LF_Appendix.1.jpg
http://www.jiscmail.ac.uk/files/FISH/ArchSci_LF_Appendix.2.jpg
http://www.jiscmail.ac.uk/files/FISH/ArchSci_LF_Appendix.3.jpg
Environmental
terminology, Gill Campbell
http://www.jiscmail.ac.uk/files/FISH/ArchSci_GCEAB_deposit.doc
http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/resources.html?eab_eh_2004
http://www.jiscmail.ac.uk/files/FISH/ArchSci_GC_environmental_codes_v7.xls
http://www.jiscmail.ac.uk/files/FISH/ArchSci_GCnotes_on_environmental_terms.doc
http://www.jiscmail.ac.uk/files/FISH/ArchSciGC_ADS_Scientific_Date_Methods.doc
Conservation.
Ian Panter
www.mda.org.uk/bmmat/matintro.htm
MIDAS
annex. Edmund Lee
http://www.jiscmail.ac.uk/files/FISH/ArchSci_MIDAS_annex_v2.rtf
| B.5.1 HER databases | B.5.2 Image management systems | B.5.3 Archaeological science | B.5.4 OASIS and data exchange procurement |
HERs
make extensive use of computers for a range of purposes, for example
word-processing packages are used to prepare letters and reports. HER databases hold information about
monuments, site-monitoring records and details of development-control
processes. Image-handling software, technical drawing packages, GIS and
internet browsers are all also used.
HER
databases and GIS provide an invaluable tool for information management and
retrieval and act as an index to the HER's other information holdings; its
collections of maps, photographs, books and other documents (see also Part D). However as the dependence on digital
resources increases, so the need to implement and refine appropriate data
standards is amplified. This is
especially the case when there is an expectation to import or link to data from
other agencies, or if there is a desire to make information available to third
parties. Data Standards are covered in
more detail in subsequent sections (B.6, B.7, C.7, C.10 and E.4).
B.5.1 HER databases
Although
a few SMRs began to computerise their records in the late 1970s the main
impetus to computerisation came from English Heritage in the early 1980s. 'Version 1' SMR systems were text files
based on a paper report-form used by English Heritage to record scheduled
monuments (known as AM107). These
systems were quite limited and, when the more flexible Superfile package became
available, English Heritage provided financial support to enable its adoption
by SMRs.
During
the 1980s SMRs were developing bespoke systems in Superfile, dbase or other
programming languages based on the AN32 recording form promoted by English
Heritage. When the OS Archaeology
Division transferred to the RCHME in 1983, the OS card index and the National
Archaeological Record (NAR) began to be computerised. Recording standards and data dictionaries were actively developed
by the RCHME for its own computer records.
Following the transfer of the lead role for SMRs to the RCHME in 1989
came the publication by the RCHME and ACAO of Recording England’s Past
(RCHME and ACAO 1993a and 1993b ), the
first document to promote both a data dictionary and reference data lists for
use by SMRs.
During
the 1990s much work was undertaken by the RCHME's Data Standards Unit (now part
of English Heritage) in partnerships with English Heritage and ALGAO to develop
the data model for recording SMR-type information. The event-monument-source data model began to be introduced in
the early 1990s when it was adopted by the RCHME for its MONARCH database, by
English Heritage in its data standard for urban archaeological databases and by
Northamptonshire SMR and a few others.
Throughout the 1990s there was considerable discussion about this data
model led by Glenn Foard, Steve Catney, Neil Lang, Nigel Clubb and Steve Stead.
The establishment of the Data Standards Working Party, now known as FISH (the
Forum for Information Standards in Heritage),
a group dedicated to developing data standards for monument inventories, can be
seen as a direct result of the general climate of discussion and debate (see
also B.7).
The
modern generation of HER databases aims to comply with the MIDAS data standard
published by the RCHME in 1998 (Lee
1998). These databases enable information about monuments, events, sources and
the management process to be recorded with equal weight. Nationally agreed reference datasets, such
as the English Heritage Thesaurus of Monument Types and other lists published
in INSCRIPTION, are incorporated into the databases (see also B.6.3). Features of the systems, such as pull-down
lists and validated entry to key index fields, help to ease the adoption of
data standards and promote consistency between HER systems. In general professional applications
developers have produced these systems and, as a result, they incorporate
features such as data-input forms, standard queries and reports that ease their
day-to-day use by HER officers.
One
would anticipate that a modern HER database would be capable of being linked to
GIS and would support links to other digital objects such as images and
research data. The HBSMR software
developed by exeGesIS SDM Ltd in partnership with the RCHME and ALGAO is one
example of a MIDAS-compliant database that is now being used by many HERs. Other HER managers have worked with IT
consultants such as Oxford ArchDigital to develop HER systems based on MIDAS.
A
decision may also need to be made as to which database platform to use. Some
HERs use web-based platforms, such as Oxford ArchDigital’s TOAD system. Many
HER databases use software applications such as Microsoft Access or other
database packages designed primarily for desktop use, such as exeGesIS’s HBSMR
software. Where the database is networked to allow multiple access to shared
files for users, the host organisation’s IT support can be distrustful of the
stability of software programs such as these, and be reluctant to provide
support. Their concerns centre on issues of performance, robustness, backup
management and security. HER managers may find themselves pressurised to move
to a server-based relational database management system (RDBMS) such as SQL
Server or Oracle. Generally speaking, server-based RDBMSs will suit very large
databases with a high number of concurrent users, as they also have better
stability, performance, security and backup procedures. However desktop
applications are generally easier to use, give the HER manager more control
over the database and have a cheaper license cost, suiting smaller databases
with fewer concurrent users. exeGesIS SDM Ltd has developed a SQL Server backed
version of their HBSMR software.
Scottish SMRs as a rule received their core data as a
download from the National Monuments Record for Scotland. Software was either
developed in house, or latterly has been purchased from commercial software
companies. The biggest issue faced in Scotland was getting the Scottish local
authorities to accept the need for development of an SMR/HER in the absence of a
statutory requirement, East Dunbartonshire and City of Dundee are still without
this essential level of provision. Historic Scotland is currently working
with the Councils to address this problem.
B.5.2 Image management systems
Local
authorities often have access to large numbers of images associated with
monuments or events in their localities. The processes of heritage management
and education are frequently enhanced by linking these images to the HER. However, if these images are not managed appropriately
then a number of problems can arise.
Some of these issues – such as file naming conventions and formats -
replicate many of the issues associated with other types of digital resource.
The commercial quality of images and their immediate reuse potential means it
is worth thinking about specific issues of intellectual property rights,
scanning and cataloguing in more detail.
Moreover, there are significant quantities of images already available
to HERs from third parties, either through the retail market or under licence
from public agencies.
Popular
image management software combines tools for cataloguing image files with tools
for reproducing images at a variety of scales.
Digital image cataloguing is a rapidly developing field and it is worth
ensuring that whatever software is used can support the emerging cataloguing
standards. In some circumstances this
may mean following formal images standards such as the Visual Resources
Association Core data standard, especially if the images within the HER form
part of a wider image collection held by a local authority (Grout et al
2000). If the HER is involved in
creating images it makes sense for the master image to be captured at high
resolution in terms of colour depth and pixels, even though the file sizes will
be large. This is because many
image-processing techniques effectively lose information, either through loss
of true colour depth or through sampling of pixels. The master copy can be used to retain all this information, while
flexible derivatives may be used for different purposes. This does however accentuate the need for
strict file naming conventions which image management software should
facilitate.
The
immediate commercial value of images means that it is wise to pay particular attention
to the intellectual property rights associated with images. This is especially true of high-quality
‘master’ images. The process of
scanning images or slide collections is fraught with difficulties as it is
often hard to identify rights holders.
Moreover the relative ease with which images can be shared means that
there is a greater risk of breaching the rights of the creator. Consequently, any image management system
should include information about copyright holders and the terms in which an image
can be used. Any act of copying can be
an infringement and republication, such as on the internet, can lead to
difficulties. Most image management
systems allow for low resolution ‘thumbnail’ images to be produced which are of
less commercial value. More
sophisticated image management systems provide ‘water marks’ and ‘fingerprints’
to stamp copyright information onto an image before it is delivered, and to
note the time and user name of the person who downloaded it. Such systems do not prevent copyright theft,
but they do provide documentation to prove that an infringement has occurred
and to identify the parties involved.
B.5.3 Archaeological science
(see also B.4.4)
Many
HERs also have access to a range of scientific data, and again the processes of
education and management are facilitated where these can be integrated into the
HER database. Different types of
information may be linked in a variety of different ways: geophysical data for
example may be integrated into the GIS; microscopy and radiographs be linked to
an image management system and scientific reports linked through ‘grey
literature reports’ and the like. Much
scientific data, especially site-based recording should in fact be considered
as any other archaeological intervention. Tools like OASIS and the FISH toolkit
provide mechanisms by which such data can be supplied to HERs. These standards are discussed in more detail
in section B.6, B.7.
A
number of scientific disciplines have begun to experiment with very large,
dedicated computing infrastructures to process, package and distribute data
derived from sensitive recording devices.
Devices like radio telescopes or experimental reactors produce
prodigious quantities of data that is of interest to small but very specialised
audiences around the world, who require dedicated resources to share and
explore their data sets. These
infrastructures combine protocols for the exchange of information with an
investment in hardware, and are intended for foster a new generation of
‘E-science’ or ‘E-research’. For
example, a programme called UKLight is dedicated providing dark-fibre networks
between a select group of research centres in the UK, while in the US a
‘National Lamba Rail’ is being constructed to connect the major research
institutions. Such developments have
had little or no impact on archaeology so far but are likely to become more
important in the future. The
development and refinement of data standards are likely to be pre-requisite for
participating in such systems.
B.5.4 OASIS and data exchange procurement
The OASIS project was developed in
response to the need to provide a single unified index to archaeological
investigations, a means of accessing the associated grey literature, and an
online method by which the index could be maintained. A major achievement of
the project was to integrate the AIP records with the Excavation Index to
provide a single concorded list, in 1998. The concordance programme delivered a
fully unified record for archaeological interventions in England. Where a
fuller electronic copy of a report is available on-line, either on the ADS
server or on the web site of the contractor or HER it is possible to include
the URL of the resource as a bibliographic reference. As curators begin to
require deposition of digital reports and as they make them available on the
Internet it will be possible to build up an online virtual library of grey
literature, directly linked from the index.
The OASIS project, FISH toolkit and allied data standards are discussed
in more detail in sections C.7.3 and B.6.
B.6 Data standards for the
Historic Environment
| B.6.1 What are data standards? | B.6.2 Why are data standards needed? | B.6.3 MIDAS and INSCRIPTION | B.6.4 The FISH Interoperability Toolkit |
B.6.1 What are data standards?
Data standards can be simply defined
as an agreed statement of “what information should be recorded, in what manner,
to achieve a particular objective”. The objectives for historic environment
managers are set out elsewhere in this manual. This section describes;
·
the value that shared data standards add to historic environment
recording,
·
data standards that are in current use,
·
how HER officers can get involved in shaping the future direction of
data standards to ensure that they meet the needs of the profession.
B.6.2 Why are data standards needed?
Collection and recording of historic environment information is
an expensive, and in some cases unrepeatable, process. It is essential that the information
contained within HERs can be readily retrieved and understood by anyone and
increasingly important that data from different HERs can be compared. Data standards
ensure that information is recorded in a consistent and retrievable way so that
the maximum benefit for the users of data is obtained from the investment.
The benefits offered include:
·
Reliability: As standard procedures are tried
and tested, if they are sensibly applied they will work well.
·
Consistency: Data standards promote consistency
in recording of information, which ensures that records can be retrieved
easily, so that all known relevant information is available when needed.
·
Expertise: Historic environment data
standards incorporate the accumulated expertise and experience of several
decades. Their adoption builds this experience into an information system,
reducing the risk associated with developing a system from scratch.
·
Compatibility: No one organisation holds all the
data relating to a particular site or area. There are usually other
organisations with an interest who may have useful data. When recorded to
common standards, data held in different databases can be shared and exchanged
much more easily. This is increasingly
important as new ways of accessing data remotely are developed.
·
Communication: Data standards assist in
communication of concepts involved in the historic environment both between HER
staff and between HER staff and their software consultants and organisations
within and beyond the sector.
·
Benchmarking: Data standards perform a crucial
role in providing an independent benchmark against which HER data quality can
be assessed.
·
Staff
skills: Adoption of
common data standards enable staff to become familiar with systems more quickly
when changing jobs and enable employers to recruit staff with relevant skills.
They also facilitate organisation of training through events such as
conferences and seminars.
·
Information
system development:
No information system lasts indefinitely. At some point data needs to be
migrated from one system to its successor. Standards simplify the process of
specification of new information systems and migration is greatly simplified if
standards are consistent within the data.
B.6.3 MIDAS and INSCRIPTION
This
section describes the purpose of the two central standards for historic
environment recording. Further information about these standards is available
online via the website of FISH (the Forum on Information Standards in Heritage)
http://www.fish-forum.info
Figure 5: The logo for the Forum on Information Standards in Heritage
MIDAS
Developed
from data standardisation work in the 1980s and early 1990s MIDAS was first published in 1998 by the
Royal Commission on the Historic Monuments of England (RCHME). MIDAS is available as a free
downloadable electronic document via links from the FISH website, or direct
from the English Heritage website.
Development
work in 2004 has extended MIDAS to
cover GIS type data and watercraft and aircraft recording. A second full
edition MIDAS Heritage: The UK Historic
Environment Information Standard is in production. This second edition will
cover a wider range of information types, supporting standardised recording of
these by the HER community. Further development work will be reported online
via the FISH website.
Figure 6: The logo of MIDAS, the
national data standard for the content of historic environment records.
What is in
MIDAS?
MIDAS
is a content standard in that it defines the
individual facts or ‘units of information’ that should be included in a
standardised record of, for example, a monument or archaeological event. It is
also an open data standard, in that although information schemes are described
the exact structure in which data is to be recorded is not defined, so that
MIDAS can be applied to a range of information systems. To promote consistency and standardisation
within the HER sector, MIDAS has been used as the basis for development of HER
Level 1 Benchmark 3.2. Compliance at a basic level with MIDAS is therefore a
professional requirement for all HERs.
HER staff should, however, familiarise themselves with the full MIDAS
standard, which includes a much wider range of information.
Who should use
MIDAS?
MIDAS is intended for a wider audience
than just the HER community and is recommended reading for anyone involved in
inventory projects. Worked examples in the manual cover, for example, its
application to academic research databases and voluntary sector thematic
surveys. The same requirement for standards exists for these other sectors if
the maximum value is to be obtained from their efforts. This is of course
particularly important if the intention exists to deposit the results of these
surveys with the local HERs.
In
addition to the data standard itself, MIDAS
includes a manual to assist those managing and maintaining an inventory of the
historic environment. HER staff should not only be familiar with MIDAS
themselves but should also recommend its use to local societies working in
their area.
Figure
7: The logo for the INSCRIPTION terminology
standard web pages
INSCRIPTION
Effective
searching of HERs relies on the quality of indexing. Good indexing ensures
effective retrieval of records relevant to a search; poor indexing means that
records will be overlooked.
Most
HER information systems support indexing using standardised terminologies built
into the actual software. These include simple lists, such as types of legal protection
for a monument, more complex hierarchical lists such as the ALGAO list of Event
Types or full indexing thesauri such as the English Heritage Thesaurus of
Monument Types (see panels 4 and 5).
INSCRIPTION,
provided by the Forum on Information Standards in Heritage is the definitive
source for information about all the available national standards. It is a
collection of wordlists and thesauri developed by various heritage bodies that
are recommended for use in conjunction with MIDAS
units of information.
MIDAS and INSCRIPTION have been developed
to work together. For each case where MIDAS
recommends the use of a controlled terminology, a suitable indexing terminology
has been developed by one or more of the partners in the Forum on Information
Standards in Heritage, and details included in INSCRIPTION.
Find
out more about INSCRIPTION, and how the controlled terminologies recorded there
can be used by visiting www.fish-forum.info.
Figure 8: A sample screenshot from
the INSCRIPTION web page
B.6.4 The FISH
Interoperability Toolkit
Interoperability
is the ability to reuse data created in one software application in another. It
is essential if efficient sharing of data between HERs and their users is to become
a reality. Interoperability relies on data standards that are understood and
shared within the HER community such as MIDAS
and INSCRIPTION, plus technical standards to support the creation of data files
that different software packages will be able to process.
To
provide HER managers and their IT advisors with the technical tools needed to
make interoperability possible the Forum on Information Standards in Heritage
have developed a ‘toolkit’ of protocols and formats aimed at HERs and their
technical advisors. It is based upon MIDAS
and incorporates the HER benchmark Level 1 standard. Online validation of data
against INSCRIPTION controlled terminologies is supported.
Whereas
MIDAS and INSCRIPTION are aimed at
HER staff, the Toolkit is aimed at IT specialists and software developers. HER
staff should familiarise themselves with the functions that the Toolkit
supports, but are advised to contact their IT support staff for discussion of
how the Toolkit might be implemented in their systems.
Further
information on the FISH Interoperability Toolkit can be accessed online at www.heritage-standards.org.
B.7
Management of data standards - FISH
Management
and development of data standards for the historic environment is co-ordinated
through FISH, the Forum on Information Standards in Heritage (see www.fish-forum.info). All of the major
heritage bodies in the UK, including ALGAO, are involved in the steering committee
of the Forum, which meets twice a year.
Figure 9: The FISH web site www.fish-forum.info is the starting
point for finding out about data standards for the historic environment
B.7.1 How to get involved
There
are several ways in which HER officers can become involved in the work of FISH
E-mail
discussion list
The
easiest way to get involved is to join the free open membership e-mail
discussion list run by FISH (see the website for details of how to join). List
members may ask questions, raise issues that require attention, seek advice and
will receive news about data standards issues, conferences and meetings. The
e-mail discussion list is also host to ‘e-conferences’ - specially focused
discussion on particular standards related topics. These are announced in
advance on the list.
As HERs expand the scope of their
content, there is a continuing need for the addition of new terms to the
existing wordlists. HER officers can get directly involved in standards
development by submitting candidate terms – suggested additions to one of the
controlled vocabularies or thesauri listed in INSCRIPTION. The different
vocabularies are maintained by a network of different working groups and standards
bodies. Details of the appropriate contact for submission of candidate terms
and information about special procedures for submitting terms will appear in
the INSCRIPTION website. However in general candidate term submission will
involve:-
·
Identifying a term or an idea that is not covered by the existing list.
·
Describing when the candidate term should be used (a ‘scope note’).
·
Providing background information, such as examples of record where the
candidate term would be appropriate, or published sources which use the term.
Peer
review participation
FISH,
as the co-ordinating body for the development of data standards, is
particularly concerned to ensure that new data standards meet the needs of the
historic environment sector. To do this newly developed standards will in most
cases be circulated in draft form for peer review. This is an opportunity for
HER staff to identify concerns, express support and to play a part in shaping
an emerging standard. All peer reviews will be announced via the FISH email
discussion list (and often via other email discussion lists). It is vital that
HER staff participate in this process. Only by participation can effective and
relevant data standards be developed.
Relevant
links
www.fish-forum.info the website for the
Forum on Information Standards in Heritage.
From this page you can:
·
Consult current versions of the FISH standards MIDAS
and INSCRIPTION
·
Participate in discussion via our email discussion list run by JISCmail.
·
View recent
discussion and download files from the forum archives.
·
Find out more about the contributing
organizations that direct the work of the forum.
·
View our Terms of
Reference
·
View what's new from FISH
See
also ADS Guides to
Good Practice
B.8 Managing HER information systems
| B.8.1 Technical support for HER systems | B.8.2 Data security | B.8.3 Procuring new information systems | B.8.4 Data migration |
B.8.1 Technical support for HER systems
HER
computer systems may be based on a corporate network or on stand-alone PCs and
may make use of standard commercial packages or bespoke systems. However installed, computer systems need
technical support for both hardware and software. Such support may be available from corporate IT departments but, even
where centrally provided, the actual support may be supplied by
contractors. HER managers are
recommended to consider carefully the level of support that they require to
keep systems running and where possible reach appropriate 'service-level
agreements'. These agreements might
cover:
·
support from hardware engineers to maintain and
repair computer equipment
·
provision of replacement hardware if repairs are
undertaken offsite
·
support from software developers to maintain or
develop databases
·
support to maintain or develop GIS
·
provision of a telephone help desk to answer
enquiries about using databases or GIS.
All aspects of a computing system can affect data security. Hardware components can fail or become
damaged. Software problems can lead to
the corruption of data. Security can be
compromised through unauthorised access and modification of data or through
loss of confidentiality. Computer systems
and the data they hold need to be protected and to have tried and tested recovery
procedures in place. It is expected that HERs run by a local authority will
have adequate security, including firewalls and anti-virus protection. The need
for this needs to be emphasised for HERs provided by Trusts.
Access
and modification control
Some
form of access and modification control is necessary to secure HER systems. The
HER officer plays a crucial role in deciding levels of access and security for
both staff and other users. Passwords
are usually seen as a suitable way of guarding against unauthorised access to a
computer system but may not provide the level of security that is anticipated.
One
problem is that users tend to choose passwords that are easy to remember, which
unfortunately are therefore also easily discovered by 'hackers' (people who
gain unauthorised access to computer systems).
Ideally passwords should be at least eight characters long and be a
mixture of numbers and letters in upper and lower case, for example eLc1ddZ. They should not be based on easily
obtainable information such as names or telephone numbers. Security is improved if the system restricts
the number of chances a user has to log on.
Most modern operating systems provide for password encryption.
Passwords
can also be required at different levels of the system, such as network login,
user account, specific machines and application, and even on specific
directories and files. The kind of
access users are allowed can often be controlled as well, for example files and
directories set to 'read only' in order to prevent unauthorised
modification. The usability of the
system needs to be considered before implementing passwords at too many
different levels, as overuse can cause its own problems.
Viruses
A
computer virus is a self-replicating computer program that may or may not be
harmful. Some viruses simply display a
message on screen while others destroy data stored on the system's hard
disk. Viruses are the scourge of
contemporary computing and they are extremely prevalent. Figures from MessageLabs, a leader in the
provision of secure content management services and anti virus services, over
10 percent of emails contain a virus. In 2000 McAfee, an anti-virus software
producer, estimated that over 45,000 types of virus were known. Today the figure is well over 70,000. A
'Trojan horse' is another type of program, usually grouped with viruses, which
is introduced on to a computer system and triggered by pre-defined
actions. Trojan horses are not
self-replicating but they are invariably destructive.
It
is essential that any computing system is protected by anti-virus
software. This software must be
regularly updated to combat new viruses as they are discovered. There are numerous software packages
available and, if a system is not already protected, HER managers should make
it a priority to install one of these.
All
files should be scanned by the virus checker before being loaded into a system.
Remote
Trojan Horse attacks, Worms, Hoaxes
Most
organisations will have a firewall in place as part of their IT strategy,
however, individual machines increasingly need the protection of personal
firewalls. Hackers can compromise poorly secured web sites with malicious code
which exploits browser vulnerabilities to upload and execute a remote access
Trojan Horse on the browser host machine, hence the possibility of bypassing an
organisational firewall. Browser patches for vulnerabilities and firewall
settings necessarily must be kept up to date.
Useful
websites:
CNET News http://news.com.com/Web+site+virus+attack+blunted/2100-7349_3-5248279.html
McAfee (virus protection software) http://www.mcafeesecurity.com/us/security/vil.htm
MessageLabs (secure content
management services) http://www.messagelabs.com/home/
Symantec
('Antivirus Research Centre') http://www.symantec.com/avcenter/index.html
Backing-up
data
No
matter what precautions are taken, data is probably going to be lost at some
time either accidentally or through malice or theft. There is a need for a strategy to be in place which covers both the
backing-up of data and a tried and tested recovery plan. In short, risk
assessments should be undertaken. If the HER is remotely hosted, there is an
increased need to ensure that adequate back up facilities are in place.
GFS
(grandfather, father, son) is a widely used back-up plan. It is usually employed as part of a
tape-rotation strategy but can be employed with other storage media. GFS is normally based on a weekly schedule
with full, partial or no back-ups undertaken variously on each day. The last full back-up of the week is the
'father' with any daily back-ups described as a ’son'. The latter are often selective involving
very specific data that may have changed since the last 'father' back-up was
done. These back-ups are transient and
the storage medium can be reused once a new 'father' has been created, however,
the last full back-up of each month, known as the 'grandfather', is usually
kept as a permanent copy and not available for reuse. It is good practice to store monthly and even weekly back-ups
offsite, preferably in a secure and fireproof environment.
Using
GFS may be excessive for many situations, especially if data remains static for
long periods. For example, updating a
database might be so irregular that only an occasional back-up is
necessary. In such cases, it might be
sufficient to export a copy of the database following updating and to back-up
the whole system weekly or monthly.
Backing-up and recovery strategies should be tailored to need.
Traditionally
tape has been used as a back-up medium.
It is cheap and tape back-up systems are inexpensive to buy. However, low-cost alternatives are now also
available through high capacity DVD based systems for example. Serious consideration should be given to
these for smaller systems, as they have the added advantage of easily enabling
the movement of data between systems with similar drives. Other emerging back-up technologies include
RAID disk arrays, where data is mirrored on more than one disk, or Storage Area
Networks (SANs), which allow the sharing of back-up equipment between
computers, although these are probably aimed more at the corporate market.
It
is good practice to attempt a test restore on a separate PC or server to ensure
back up procedures are adequate. This should be repeated after upgrades and
alterations to the system. Backup and restore procedures should be included in
disaster recovery plans.
As
a final thought, if complete disaster happens and your back-up strategy fails
or has not been implemented all may not be lost. A number of companies specialise in recovery following drive
crashes, virus attack, file system corruption and so forth. It might be an expensive exercise but so is
data loss. The only solution is to
maintain an efficient back-up and recovery strategy and document this in your
disaster plan.
Useful websites:
GFS Back-up Strategy http://www.intel.com/support/storageexpress/sb/cs-011789.htm
Data
recovery example http://www.ontrack.co.uk
B.8.3 Procuring new
information systems
Any
plan to implement new computing facilities or GIS for the HER is likely to
begin with staff. This may come about
because an existing HER system is coming to the end of its working life or
because new technology and improved tools have become available. Once it has been recognised that a new or
replacement system is desirable, it is important to prepare a business case for
procuring a new system and to specify the HER’s requirements from it.
The
HER's parent organisation may have a corporate information systems
strategy. This may specify standard
software applications to be used within the organisation and for which there is
in-house expertise. The strategy
document may also give guidelines for procurement of specialist professional
applications or for working with IT consultants.
HER databases
Most
organisations consider HER databases to be specialist professional applications
that may be developed either as bespoke systems or purchased as off-the-shelf
products. In specifying new HER
databases it is important to consider both compliance with nationally agreed
data standards and user requirements for working with the system. HER managers are recommended to consult
other HERs and the NMR to discuss the systems that are in use in HERs as well
as talking to IT professionals (whether consultants or those working for their
organisation).
GIS software
If
a local authority has chosen a particular GIS this may be a powerful argument
for the HER to do likewise. A corporate
GIS will make the task of sharing data with other sections easier and will
enable the HER to harness the expertise within the authority, helping to
support the system, and possibly to obtain the software at low or no cost. HER managers should still check that this
software meets their requirements.
These requirements must be realistic - think about how much a facility
would be used, and if the requirement is occasional, whether there are cheaper
ways of meeting the need, such as using an external contractor.
One
element of the user requirement is likely to be a list of the functions that
the GIS is intended to perform. A
useful source of advice is the Functional
Requirement Specification for GIS (LGMB 1991), available from the
Improvement and Development Agency, formerly the Local Government Management
Board (LGMB). This includes a catalogue
of GIS functions, which can be used as a 'checklist' to compare different
software products and to assess if any customisation might be required and what
skills would be needed to achieve the desired outcome. Target response times for operations that
are important to users can provide a useful benchmark and can be used to make
sure that the users' expectations and the developer's system performance
targets are aligned. For example, if
the identification of all records falling within an administrative boundary
will be a frequent enquiry what would be the maximum acceptable time for this
to take?
Contracts
If you are entering into a legal contract with an
external supplier, it is well worth having a 'health check' from a specialist
department, for example legal services or procurement. If internal advice is not available then
consider budgeting for specialist advice.
The cost may seem expensive, but will be small compared to the expense
of a major mistake. Establishing the
user requirement and expressing that in legally enforceable terms is a skill in
its own right - don't underestimate it!
As data standards and information
technology have developed, most HERs have migrated their databases into newer
systems. Data migration requires
careful planning, which may include:
·
completing an audit of the HER database, its data structure and
assessing the data quality
·
confirming the format in which digital data will be exported from the
existing database
·
securing a back-up and an archive copy of the existing database
·
mapping the data in your old system to the data structure of the new
system
·
identifying problems or issues with the data to be addressed in advance
of migration, including planning, to adopt national data standards and
reference data
·
planning to complete data migration and have the new system up and
running as quickly as possible
·
establishing a training programme for HER staff to enable them to become
familiar with the new systems.
It
is probable that the FISH Interoperability Toolkit will have a significant role
to play in the movement and migration of data in the future (See also section
B.6, B.7).
B.9 lntranets and the internet
| B.9.1 lntranets | B.9.2 The internet | B.9.3 Metadata for electronic resources curated by HERs | B.9.4 What is Z39.50? |
B.9.1
lntranets
Intranets
are closed networks that are established by organisations to serve the
computing needs of their staff. An
intranet may be small, for example a number of computers connected to a Local
Area Network (LAN) within a building, but can be very large, for example the
computing networks for a series of buildings connected to a Wide Area Network
(WAN). In a WAN the buildings may be widely
separated, as is the case in organisations with regional offices, such as
English Heritage or multinational companies.
The technology that links the computers is similar to that used in the
internet. The difference is that use of
an intranet is restricted to those with security clearance and a valid
password. Intranets are enclosed inside
a firewall to secure the information held on corporate systems from
unauthorised access.
B.9.2 The internet
The
internet is a shortening of 'Inter Networking' and offers a very different user
environment consisting of millions of computers linked into a global
communications network. Users include
both private individuals and organisations from across the world all connected
to the internet through an Internet Service Provider (ISP) or by establishing a
web server. ISPs maintain web servers
and other communications equipment enabling their clients to access a number of
services from the internet. Access to
the World Wide Web and electronic mail or 'e-mail' are normally considered as
the most important internet services.
Getting
connected
Many
HERs are already linked into an intranet, for example the network run by their
local authority. Some HERs run their
own small networks with a database server allowing access to a small number of
simultaneous authorised users. A number
of HERs have access to the internet either through a network connection
provided by their organisation or by establishing a direct connection from a PC
using a modem and an ISP.
Firewalls
When
intranets are connected into the global internet a protective security screen
or firewall is normally established to control access to locally held resources
from unauthorised outside users. The
level of access to internet services allowed to individual users may also be
controlled. This is generally achieved
by setting up a proxy server that deals with internet requests from users
connected to the internal network. Such a set up generally protects individual
users but mobile computing is increasingly adding to security problems in that
machines such as laptops and notepads may be used both within and outside of an
organisational firewall with the possibility of introducing ‘infections’ into a
system. A personal firewall on such machines is increasingly important
particularly in light of the growing number of web based attacks (see B.8.2).
Web
space
Access
to the internet either through a corporate web server, co-ordinated by a web
master, or from an ISP gives access to web space. This is space on the web server that may be used for file storage
and for a website to advertise the HER.
Websites have an address or URL which locates a hypertext file on the
World Wide Web. Hypertext files can
incorporate text, images and other digital data that are linked to the
intranet. Websites may simply display
information about an HER and its services with links to other websites of
interest and facilities to allow users to record comments or send emails to the
HER. Advanced sites can enable on-line
searching of databases, incorporate video, sound and virtual-reality elements
and many other features. HERs are increasingly presenting subsets of their data
online as part of the drive towards greater accessibility. (See also F.8)
Useful websites
Brief history of the internet http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/brief.shtml
FirewalIs: http://searchsecurity.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid14_gci212125,00.html
Intranets: http://searchwebservices.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid26_gci212377,00.html
Proxy servers: http://searchsmallbizit.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid44_gci212840,00.html
World Wide Web (W3C)
Consortium: http://www.w3.org/
Site design: Ability Net: http://www.ability.org.uk/
Site design: RNIB: http://www.rnib.org.uk/xpedio/groups/public/documents/Code/public_rnib003460.hcsp
Web Accessibility initiative: http://www.w3.org/WAI
B.9.3 Metadata for electronic
resources curated by HERs
HERs hold a
variety of electronic resources including databases, text files, spreadsheets,
CAD files and GIS. Metadata should be
recorded for each of those resources to provide a catalogue to the HERs'
holdings as an aid to resource discovery.
HERs are recommended to follow the Dublin Core for electronic resources
other than GIS (see panel 6), which provides a standard content-description
model widely used on the internet (see Miller
and Greenstein 1997). HERs might want to consult the e-Gov metadata standard
(eGMS) which adds several elements to the core Dublin Core schema. The UK
GEMINI (Geo-spatial Metadata Interoperability Initiative) standard has replaced
the NGDF standard previously recommended. UK GEMINI was developed through a collaboration of the Association for
Geographic Information (AGI) and the Cabinet Office e-Government Unit, with
additional representation from national and local government, and the academic
community.
Useful websites
Dublin Core
http://dublincore.org/
e-Gov http://www.govtalk.gov.uk/schemasstandards/schemasstandards.asp
Metadata http://www.ads.ac.uk/old/public/metadata/discovery.html
http://www.ukoln.ac.uk/metadata/
UK GEMINI http://www.gigateway.org.uk/metadata/pdf/UK_GEMINI_v1.pdf
|
Panel
6: Elements of the Dublin Core |
|
|
Element |
Description |
|
Title |
The name given to a resource by its creator. |
|
Creator |
Person(s)
or organisation(s) involved in creating the original resource, for example
the Environment Department might be responsible for creating a corporate
GIS layer of SSSIs. As an aid
to resource discovery it may be helpful to record both named individuals
and their organisations, for example Fred Bloggs and Sam Spade of English
Heritage might be involved in creating a CAD file. |
|
Subject |
The topic of the resource, in keywords or phrases that describe the
subject or content of the resource. |
|
Description |
A text description of the contents of the resource, including abstracts
in the case of document-like objects or content descriptions in the case
of visual resources. |
|
Publisher |
The publisher, distributor, department or other entity(ies) who are
responsible for making the resource available, for example the Archaeology
Data Service might provide access to a database created by Westshire
County Council. |
|
Date |
Dates when the resource was created, published, released, maintained or
updated. A number of
different types of dates may need to be recorded.
Not to be confused with the date of the contents of the resource.
|
|
Type |
The general type of the resource, such as text, image, database etc.
|
|
Format |
The format in which the data is represented, for example text, HTML,
ASCII, executable application, JPEG image etc. The size of the resource and the medium on which it is held
may also be recorded. |
|
Identifier |
A unique identifier for the resource, for example URLs, ISBN number or
internal identification number. |
|
Source |
The work from which the resource is derived, for example the source of
an HTML page might be a paper volume.
|
|
Language |
The language(s) of the intellectual content of the resource.
|
|
Relation |
The relationship to other resources, for example images in a document.
|
|
Coverage |
The spatial and temporal coverage of the information contained in the
resource. |
|
Rights |
Statement of copyright or other rights relating to the resource.
|
Z39.50 is the
name of a computer-to-computer communications protocol that is promoted by the
National Information Standards Organization (NISO), an American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) standards developer that serves the library,
information, and publishing communities.
Z39.50 is being implemented worldwide because it makes it easier for
users to search and retrieve information simultaneously from groups of related databases
on the internet.
Applications of Z39.50
involving the UK
Much of the
development of Z39.50 took place in the library sector, as a way of
simultaneously interrogating the catalogues maintained in different
libraries. The recent development of
associated standards such as the Bath and CIMI profiles have made it easier to
employ Z39.50 outside of library cataloguing. These provide support for more
generalised record syntaxes such as Dublin Core and enable users to ask
questions such as what, when, where or to conduct queries based on coordinate
systems; undoubtedly more suited for those with an interest in Heritage.
Suitability led the HEIRNET (Historic Environment Information Records Network)
consortium to develop HEIRPORT; a Z39.50 system for searching geographically
distributed databases of a number of heritage organisations including
English Heritage NMR
RCAHMS NMRS
Durham SMR
Portable Antiquities Scheme
HEIRNET Register
SCRAN
ADS Catalogue
Using a standard
web browser, a remote user can access the HEIRPORT gateway to interrogate its various
targets. The results are then passed
back to the user's browser through the origin, where they are displayed in
HTML.
Recently a European Z39.50 gateway was launched as
part of the ARENA (Archaeological
Records of Europe - Networked Access) project. Partners currently include:
Denmark: National Agency for Cultural Heritage
Iceland: Fornleifastofnun Íslands, The Institute of
Archaeology
Norway: The Museum Project, Oslo
Poland: Poznan Archaeological Museum
Romania: cIMeC, Institute for Cultural Memory
United Kingdom: Archaeology Data Service
NMRs and HERs
are also contributing to these projects through the provision of subsets of
their data to the ADS.
What does Z39.50 do?
Z39.50 supports
information retrieval in a client and server environment where a computer
operating as a client submits a search request (that is, a query) to another
computer acting as an information server. Software on the server performs a
search on one or more databases and passes a result set of records to the
client for processing.
The power of
Z39.50 is that it separates the user interface on the client side from the
information servers, search engines, and databases. It provides a consistent view of information from a wide variety
of sources, offering the ability to integrate information from different
databases without imposing rules on the structure of those databases. Z39.50 can be implemented on any platform
and enables different computer systems (with different operating systems,
hardware, search engines, database management systems) to inter-operate and
work together seamlessly.
This means that
if an HER database is mounted on the internet using Z39.50, it can be searched
from both the HER website and any number of Z39.50 gateways without the
necessity for any changes to its structure providing they support shared
standards such as CIMI and Bath profile.
How does it work?
Z39.50
standardises the way in which the client and the server communicate with each
other, specifies procedures and provides a common language for the activities
of both. In information retrieval, a series of messages passes between the
client (referred to as the ‘origin') and server (referred to as the 'target')
to establish a connection, initiate a Z39.50 session, and negotiate
expectations and limitations on the activities that will occur (such as the
maximum size of the records). After
this, the client may submit a generic search request (and to any number of
usually remote targets). The request specifies query type and query term, for
example, undertake a ‘what’ search for ‘round barrow’. Configuration files map
‘what’ to the local equivalent which might be a ‘monument_type’ field in a
‘monument’ table and defines a local query. The server executes the search
against one or more databases, and creates a result set. The client can then ask for records from the
result set and, upon receipt, display records to the user. An advantage of
Z39.50 is that each database can have unique characteristics, for example
differences in the way they store data, in the access points available for
searching and in the software platform on which they reside. The objective of Z39.50 is to support
computer-to-computer communication in standard and mutually understandable
terms and support the transfer of data between the systems independent of the
structure, content, or format of the data in a particular system. In short
Z39.50 is a tool for virtual searching.
Implementing Z39.50
Implementing
Z39.50 has hitherto been complicated, but it is getting progressively simpler
as the standards have developed. Two
things are essential:
·
First, the
appropriate software has to be installed to handle communications between one
computer and another.
·
Second, the
data within the target's databases have to be mapped on to the metadata
standard(s) defined in shared profiles.
Mapping to metadata allows for a description of the data to be passed
from client to server in a format that both can manage. Information can be passed from target to
origin in a number of standard formats.
Advice on
implementing Z39.50 is available from both the ADS and the mda.
XML
XML (Extensible Markup Language) is a standard for creating markup
languages which describe the structure of data. It is not a fixed set of
elements like HTML, but rather, it is like SGML (Standard Generalised Markup
Language) in that it is a metalanguage, or a language for describing languages.
XML enables authors to define their own tags. XML is a formal specification of
the World Wide Web Consortium. (More detailed definition is
available from: http://searchwebservices.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid26_gci213404,00.html
The e-Government Interoperability Framework (e-GIF)
mandates the adoption of XML and the development of XML schemas as the
cornerstone of the government interoperability and integration strategy. A key
element in the development of XML schemas is an agreed set of data standards. (http://www.govtalk.gov.uk/schemasstandards/datastandards.asp).
Useful web sites:
XML UK: the United Kingdom Forum
for Structured Information Standards http://www.xmluk.org/
The Future
In the past
systems such as HEIRPORT have been described as portals. Today, however, a
number of standards bodies have begun work on developing portal standards.
Significant amongst these is Java Specification Request (JSR) 168 which defines
a set of Java Application Program Interfaces for developing portlets which can
be used in compliant portals. Portlets provide ‘Web Services’. Portlets can be
designed to interface with remote Z39.50 targets or indeed just about anything
that is network accessible. Users can ‘pick and mix’ which portlets and thus
services they wish to use within a personalised portal environment. Thus
someone living in the Northeast might activate a Durham HER portlet, a local
weather portlet and local newsfeed portlet within their portal environment. The CREE (Contextual Resource Evaluation Environment)
consortium is looking at providing portlet interaction with various services
including HEIRPORT targets within a formal (JSR-168 compliant) portal
environment.
Useful websites
ARENA: http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/arena/
CREE: http://www.hull.ac.uk/cree/
HEIRNET: http://www.britarch.ac.uk/HEIRNET/
HEIRNET register: http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/heirnet/index.cfm
HEIRPORT: http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/cfm/heirport2/
Web Portals: http://www.w3.org/2002/07/DIAT/posn/sun-portal.html
Z39.50 for all: http://www.ariadne.ac.uk/issue21/z3950/intro.html
| B.10.1 Cataloguing | B.10.2 Collection materials | B.10.3 Storage | B.10.4 Storage materials |
| B.10.5 Environmental risks | B.10.6 Day-to-day care | B.10.7 Digital archiving |
HERs
hold collections of reference materials or sources that supplement the
information contained in their databases.
HERs are recommended to deposit original archives with an appropriate
repository, for example a museum, record office, or digital archive. However, substantial collections of
reference materials are held which would be expensive or difficult to
replace. It is common sense to consider
the storage and documentation requirements of managing these collections. The basic guidelines given in this manual
draw heavily on fact sheets available from Museums, Libraries and Archives
(MLA), formerly known as Resource.
Getting advice
HERs
are recommended to seek advice from their local museum or record office when
planning strategies to manage their collections and from conservators if there
is any concern over the condition or deterioration of materials in their care. MLA, the Museums Association and the
Association for Information Management (ASLIB) all provide sources of
information about collections management and suppliers of conservation
materials and resources on their websites.
The ADS provides guidance on digital archiving and the NMR can provide
general advice.
The
first step in managing collections is to prepare a catalogue. This may take the form of a simple list that
identifies each item with a unique number, gives a simple description and
points users to its current storage location.
The benefit of preparing a catalogue is that you know what you have got,
where it is and if anything has been lost.
Catalogues help you to answer enquiries more efficiently and regular
users can be allowed direct access to well organised collections.
In
addition to an item list, it is important to record, wherever possible, how and
when a collection was acquired and any conditions affecting the HER's rights
over its contents, such as copyright, database right or licences for making
reproductions of the material for third parties. These conditions may be set out in a deposit licence or through
an exchange of letters between the HER and the originator of the material,
whether reports, plans, drawings, photographs, digital data, written notes or
simply a letter.
When
cataloguing it is important to consider the lifespan of the collection, that
is, how long do you anticipate that the HER will retain the material? If the material is destined for permanent
storage as archival material, HER managers are recommended to consider whether
the original material should be deposited at a museum or record office and a
copy retained for HER use. For
materials that the HER does retain, those with the longest lifespan should be
treated to the best possible storage conditions. Some items may have a fixed useful life, for example a map series
may be superseded by a later edition, these items may be stored to lower
standards and removed when no longer required.
Continuing to store items beyond the end of their useful life can have
an adverse impact on the management of higher-priority collections.